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RESEARCH

A Lifetime of Work on Mental Imagery, Visual Cognition, and the Science of Learning

Stephen Kosslyn's scientific work has contributed empirical findings about how the mind and brain work, and a range of applications of those findings. The sections below organize that work into six areas.

AREA 1 OF 6

Functional and Structural Characteristics of Mental Imagery

Kosslyn's foundational empirical work established that visual mental images have measurable, picture-like (depictive) properties that parallel those of visual perception, helping to reshape and substantially resolve the classic imagery debate. The imagery debate focused on whether the mind relies on only a single, language-like propositional format or uses at least two formats, a propositional one and a depictive one.

Mental scanning

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1973). Scanning visual images: Some structural implications. Perception & Psychophysics, 14, 90–94.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Ball, T. M., & Reiser, B. J. (1978). Visual images preserve metric spatial information: Evidence from studies of image scanning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 47–60.

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  • Pinker, S., and Kosslyn, S. M. (1978). The representation and manipulation of three dimensional space in mental images. Journal of Mental Imagery, 2, 69-84.

Computational implementation

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., & Shwartz, S. P. (1977). A simulation of visual imagery. Cognitive Science, 1, 265–295.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1981). The medium and the message in mental imagery: A theory. Psychological Review, 88, 46–66.

Structural equivalence with perception

KEY CITATIONS

  • Borst, G., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2008). Visual mental imagery and visual perception: Structural equivalence revealed by scanning processes. Memory and Cognition, 36, 849–862.

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  • Lewis, K., Borst, G., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2011). Integrating visual mental images and visual percepts: New evidence for depictive representations. Psychological Research, 75, 259–271.

AREA 2 OF 6

Neural Bases of Mental Imagery

Kosslyn's neuroimaging and neuropsychological work mapped how the brain implements visual mental imagery, establishing that imagery shares neural substrates with like-modality perception.

Early visual cortex is activated during imagery, retinotopically

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Alpert, N. M., Thompson, W. L., Maljkovic, V., Weise, S. B., Chabris, C. F., Hamilton, S. E., & Buonanno, F. S. (1993). Visual mental imagery activates topographically organized visual cortex: PET investigations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 5, 263–287.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., Kim, I. J., & Alpert, N. M. (1995). Topographical representations of mental images in primary visual cortex. Nature, 378, 496–498.

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  • Klein, I., Paradis, A.-L., Poline, J.-B., Kosslyn, S. M., & Le Bihan, D. (2000). Transient activity in human calcarine cortex during visual imagery. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 15S–23S.

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  • Klein, I., Dubois, J., Mangin, J.-F., Kherif, F., Flandin, G., Poline, J.-B., Denis, M., Kosslyn, S. M., & Le Bihan, D. (2004). Retinotopic organization of visual mental images as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Cognitive Brain Research, 22, 26–31.

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  • Slotnick, S. D., Thompson, W. L., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2005). Visual mental imagery induces retinotopically organized activation of early visual areas. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 1570–1583.

Shared neural mechanisms of imagery and perception

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., & Alpert, N. M. (1997). Neural systems shared by visual imagery and visual perception: A positron emission tomography study. NeuroImage, 6, 320–334.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Ganis, G., & Thompson, W. L. (2001). Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 635–642.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., & Thompson, W. L. (2003). When is early visual cortex activated during visual mental imagery? Psychological Bulletin, 129, 723–746.

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  • Ganis, G., Thompson, W. L., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2004). Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: An fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20, 226–241.

Theoretical synthesis

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1988). Aspects of a cognitive neuroscience of mental imagery. Science, 240, 1621–1626.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Image and Brain: The Resolution of the Imagery Debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., & Ganis, G. (2006). The Case for Mental Imagery. New York: Oxford University Press.

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  • Pearson, J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2015). The heterogeneity of mental representation: Ending the "Imagery Debate." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 10089–10092.

AREA 3 OF 6

Neural Bases of Perception and Object Recognition

Beyond imagery, Kosslyn made foundational contributions to the cognitive neuroscience of visual perception itself — high-level vision, hemispheric specialization, and the dorsal/ventral architecture.

Categorical vs. coordinate spatial relations

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1987). Seeing and imagining in the cerebral hemispheres: A computational approach. Psychological Review, 94, 148–175.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Koenig, O., Barrett, A., Cave, C. B., Tang, J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1989). Evidence for two types of spatial representations: Hemispheric specialization for categorical and coordinate relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 15, 723–735.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Chabris, C. F., Marsolek, C. J., & Koenig, O. (1992). Categorical versus coordinate spatial representations: Computational analyses and computer simulations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18, 562–577.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., Gitelman, D. R., & Alpert, N. M. (1998). Neural systems that encode categorical versus coordinate spatial relations: PET investigations. Psychobiology, 26, 333–347.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2006). You can play 20 questions with nature and win: Categorical versus coordinate spatial relations as a case study. Neuropsychologia, 44, 1519–1523.

Components of high-level vision and object recognition

KEY CITATIONS

  • Mumford, D., Kosslyn, S. M., Hillger, L. A., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1987). Discriminating figure from ground: The role of edge detection and region growing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 84, 7354–7358.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Flynn, R. A., Amsterdam, J. B., & Wang, G. (1990). Components of high-level vision: A cognitive neuroscience analysis and accounts of neurological syndromes. Cognition, 34, 203–277.

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  • Cave, C. B., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1993). The role of parts and spatial relations in object identification. Perception, 22, 229–248.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Alpert, N. M., Thompson, W. L., Chabris, C. F., Rauch, S. L., & Anderson, A. K. (1994). Identifying objects seen from different viewpoints: A PET investigation. Brain, 117, 1055–1071.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Alpert, N. M., & Thompson, W. L. (1995). Identifying objects at different levels of hierarchy: A positron emission tomography study. Human Brain Mapping, 3, 107–132.

Form-specific priming and visual subsystems

KEY CITATIONS

  • Marsolek, C. J., Kosslyn, S. M., & Squire, L. R. (1992). Form-specific priming in the right cerebral hemisphere. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 492–508.

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  • Laeng, B., Zarrinpar, A., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2003). Do separate processes identify objects as exemplars versus members of basic-level categories? Evidence from hemispheric specialization. Brain and Cognition, 53, 15–27.

Integrated framework

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., & Koenig, O. (1992/1995). Wet Mind: The New Cognitive Neuroscience. New York: Free Press.

AREA 4 OF 6

Visual Communication

Kosslyn extended his perceptual research to applied questions about how charts, graphs, and slides should be designed to be compatible with the architecture of human visual cognition.

Psychological principles for graphs

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1985). Graphics and human information processing: A review of five books. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 80, 499–512.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1989). Understanding charts and graphs. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 3, 185–225.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Chabris, C. F., & Hamilton, S. E. (1990). Designing for the Mind: Five psychological principles of articulate graphics. Multimedia Review, Fall, 23–29.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Elements of Graph Design. New York: W. H. Freeman.

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  • Mosslyn, S. M. (2006). Graph Design for the Eye and Mind. New York: Oxford University Press.

Presentation design

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Clear and to the Point: 8 Psychological Principles for Compelling PowerPoint Presentations. New York: Oxford University Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2011). Better PowerPoint: Quick Fixes Based on How Your Audience Thinks. New York: Oxford University Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Kievit, R. A., Russell, A. G., & Shephard, J. M. (2012). PowerPoint presentation flaws and failures: A psychological analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 230.

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  • Moulton, S. T., Turkay, S., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2017). Does a presentation's medium affect its message? PowerPoint, Prezi, and oral presentations. PLoS ONE, 12(7), e0178774.

AREA 5 OF 6

Applied and Clinical Cognitive Neuroscience

Kosslyn extended the imagery and visual-cognition frameworks to a range of clinical and applied domains — affective disorders, hypnosis, aging, deception, expertise, and team performance — pioneering the use of cognitive-neuroscience methods to address questions previously addressed only behaviorally or clinically.

PTSD and traumatic imagery

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Shin, L. M., Thompson, W. L., McNally, R. J., Rauch, S. L., Pitman, R. K., & Alpert, N. M. (1996). Neural effects of visualizing and perceiving aversive stimuli: A PET investigation. NeuroReport, 7, 1569–1576.

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  • Shin, L. M., Kosslyn, S. M., McNally, R. J., Alpert, N. M., Thompson, W. L., Rauch, S. L., Macklin, M. L., & Pitman, R. K. (1997). Visual imagery and perception in posttraumatic stress disorder: A positron emission tomographic investigation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 233–241.

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  • Shin, L. M., McNally, R. J., Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., Rauch, S. L., Alpert, N. M., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (1999). Regional cerebral blood flow during script-driven imagery in childhood sexual abuse-related PTSD: A PET investigation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 575–584.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2005). Reflective thinking and mental imagery: A perspective on the development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 851–863.

Placebo and expectancy

KEY CITATIONS

  • Wager, T. D., Rilling, J. K., Smith, E. E., Sokolik, A., Casey, K. L., Davidson, R. J., Kosslyn, S. M., Rose, R. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Placebo-induced changes in fMRI in the anticipation and experience of pain. Science, 303, 1162–1167.

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  • Nitschke, J. B., Dixon, G. E., Sarinopoulos, I., Short, S. J., Cohen, J. D., Smith, E. E., Kosslyn, S. M., Rose, R. M., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Altering expectancy dampens neural response to aversive taste in primary taste cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 435–442.

Neurodegenerative and neurological disease

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., & Dror, I. E. (1992). A cognitive neuroscience of Alzheimer's Disease: What can be learned from studies of visual imagery? In Y. Christen & P. Churchland (Eds.), Neurophilosophy and Alzheimer's Disease (pp. 49–59). New York: Springer-Verlag.

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  • Mijovic-Prelec, D., Shin, L. M., Chabris, C. F., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). When does "no" really mean "yes"? A case study in unilateral visual neglect. Neuropsychologia, 32, 151–158.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Hamilton, S. E., & Bernstein, J. H. (1995). The perception of curvature can be selectively disrupted in prosopagnosia. Brain and Cognition, 27, 36–58.

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  • Appollonio, I., Grafman, J., Clark, K., Kosslyn, S. M., & Frattola, L. (1996). Image generation from long-term memory in Parkinson's Disease. In L. Battistin et al. (Eds.), Advances in Neurology, Vol. 69: Parkinson's Disease (pp. 349–359). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven.

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  • Laeng, B., Kosslyn, S. M., Caviness, V. S., & Bates, J. (1999). Can deficits in spatial indexing contribute to simultagnosia? Cognitive Neuropsychology, 16, 81–114.

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  • Ochsner, K. N., Kosslyn, S. M., Cosgrove, G. R., Price, B., Cassem, E. H., Price, B. H., Nierenberg, A. A., & Rauch, S. L. (2001). Deficits in visual

Deception and the "lying brain"

KEY CITATIONS

  • Ganis, G., Kosslyn, S. M., Stose, S., Thompson, W. L., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Neural correlates of different types of deception: An fMRI investigation. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 830–836.

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  • Ganis, G., Morris, R. R., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2009). Neural processes underlying self- and other-related lies: An individual difference approach using fMRI. Social Neuroscience, 4, 539–553.

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  • Morgan, C. J., LeSage, J. B., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2009). Types of deception revealed by individual differences in cognitive abilities. Social Neuroscience, 4, 554–569.

Team performance and brain-based composition

KEY CITATIONS

  • Woolley, A. W., Hackman, J. R., Jerde, T. E., Chabris, C. F., Bennett, S. L., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Using brain-based measures to compose teams: How individual capabilities and team collaboration strategies jointly shape performance. Social Neuroscience, 2, 96–105.

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  • Woolley, A. W., Gerbasi, M. E., Chabris, C. F., Kosslyn, S. M., & Hackman, J. R. (2008). Bringing in the experts: How team composition and collaborative planning jointly shape analytic effectiveness. Small Group Research, 39, 352–371.

Social Prosthetic Systems

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2006). On the evolution of human motivation: The role of Social Prosthetic Systems. In S. M. Platek, T. K. Shackelford, & J. P. Keenan (Eds.), Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience (pp. 541–554). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2013). Social Prosthetic Systems and human motivation: One reason why cooperation is fundamentally human. In M. A. Nowak & S. Coakley (Eds.), Evolution, Games and God: The Principle of Cooperation (pp. 153–167). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

AREA 6 OF 6

Education and the Science of Learning

Kosslyn translated cognitive-science findings about memory, attention, and processing into a framework for educational design — first at Minerva, then through Foundry College, and then at Active Learning Sciences.

Why a new model of higher education

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., & Nelson, B. (2017). Why we need a new kind of higher education. In S. M. Kosslyn & B. Nelson (Eds.), Building the Intentional University: Minerva and the Future of Higher Education (pp. 5–18). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2017). Practical knowledge. In S. M. Kosslyn & B. Nelson (Eds.), Building the Intentional University (pp. 19–44). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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Cognitive style and instruction

KEY CITATIONS

  • Anderson, K. L., Casey, M. B., Thompson, W. L., Burrage, M. S., Pezaris, E., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2008). Performance on middle school geometry problems with geometry clues matched to three different cognitive styles. Mind, Brain, and Education, 2, 188–197.

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  • Kozhevnikov, M., Evans, C., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2014). Cognitive style as environmentally sensitive individual differences in cognition: A modern synthesis and applications in education, business, and management. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15, 3–33.

Image generation as a componential process

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1975). Information representation in visual images. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 341–370.​

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., and Alper, S. N. (1977). On the pictorial properties of visual images: effects of image size on memory for words. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 31, 32-40.

Individual differences

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Brunn, J. L., Cave, K. R., & Wallach, R. W. (1984). Individual differences in visual imagery: A computational analysis. Cognition, 18, 195–243.

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  • Kozhevnikov, M., Kosslyn, S. M., & Shephard, J. M. (2005). Spatial versus object visualizers: A new characterization of visual cognitive style. Memory and Cognition, 33, 710–726.

Imagery as mental emulation

KEY CITATIONS

  • Moulton, S. T., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2009). Imaginingpredictions: Mental imagery as mental emulation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364, 1273–1280.

Causal role of V1

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Pascual-Leone, A., Felician, O., Camposano, S., Keenan, J. P., Thompson, W. L., Ganis, G., Sukel, K. E., & Alpert, N. M. (1999). The role of area 17 in visual imagery: Convergent evidence from PET and rTMS. Science, 284, 167–170.

Neuropsychological dissociations

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Holtzman, J. D., Gazzaniga, M. S., & Farah, M. J. (1985). A computational analysis of mental image generation: Evidence from functional dissociations in split-brain patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 311–341.

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  • Farah, M. J., Gazzaniga, M. S., Holtzman, J. D., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1985). A left hemisphere basis for imagery? Neuropsychologia, 23, 115–118.

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  • Butter, C. M., Kosslyn, S. M., Mijovic-Prelec, D., & Riffle, A. (1997). Field-specific deficits in visual imagery following hemianopia due to unilateral occipital infarcts. Brain, 120, 217–228.

Why the dorsal and ventral streams are functionally distinct

KEY CITATIONS

  • Rueckl, J. G., Cave, K. R., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1989). Why are "what" and "where" processed by separate cortical visual systems? A computational investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 171–186.

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  • Jacobs, R. A., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Encoding shape and spatial relations: The role of receptive field size in coordinating complementary representations. Cognitive Science, 18, 361–386.

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  • Borst, G., Thompson, W. L., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2011). Understanding the dorsal and ventral systems of the human cerebral cortex: Beyond dichotomies. American Psychologist, 66, 624–632.

Shape and coordinate systems in long-term memory

KEY CITATIONS

  • Jolicoeur, P., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1983). Coordinate systems in the long-term memory representation of three-dimensional shapes. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 301–345.

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  • Jolicoeur, P., Gluck, M. A., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1984). Pictures and names: Making the connection. Cognitive Psychology, 16, 243–275.

Top-down processing in vision

KEY CITATIONS

  • Ganis, G., Schendan, H. E., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Neuroimaging evidence for object model verification theory: Role of prefrontal control in visual object categorization. NeuroImage, 34, 384–398.

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  • Ganis, G., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Multiple mechanisms of top-down processing in vision. In S. Funahashi (Ed.), Representation and Brain (pp. 21–45). Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.

Diagrams and information graphics

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., & Chabris, C. F. (1992). Minding information graphics: Knowing a little about human perception can help make your graphics a lot more informative. Folio, 21 (Feb), 69–71.

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  • Chabris, C. F., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2005). Representational correspondence as a basic principle of diagram design. In S.-O. Tergan & T. Keller (Eds.), Knowledge and Information Visualization (LNCS 3426, pp. 36–57). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Hypnosis and top-down modulation of perception

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., Costantini-Ferrando, M. F., Alpert, N. M., & Spiegel, D. (2000). Hypnotic visual illusion alters color processing in the brain. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1279–1284.

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  • Kogon, M. M., Jaisukatis, P., Berardi, A., Gupta, M., Kosslyn, S. M., & Spiegel, D. (1998). Imagery and hypnotizability revisited. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 46, 363–370.

Affective disorders and visual cognition

KEY CITATIONS

  • Brown, H., Kosslyn, S. M., Breiter, H., Baer, L., & Jenike, M. A. (1994). Can patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder discriminate between percepts and mental images? A signal detection analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 445–454.

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  • Wray, S. H., Mijovic-Prelec, D., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1995). Visual processing in migraineurs. Brain, 118, 25–35.

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  • Brown, H. D., Kosslyn, S. M., Delamater, B., Fama, J., & Barsky, A. J. (1999). Perceptual and memory biases for health-related information in hypochondriacal individuals. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 47, 67–78.

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  • Zarrinpar, A., Deldin, P., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2006). Effects of depression on sensory/motor vs. central processing in visual mental imagery. Cognition & Emotion, 20, 737–758.

Aging and visual cognition

KEY CITATIONS

  • Dror, I., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). Mental imagery and aging. Psychology and Aging, 9, 90–102.

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  • Dror, I. E., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1998). Age degradation in top-down processing: Recognizing objects from canonical and noncanonical viewpoints. Experimental Aging Research, 24, 203–216.

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  • Brown, H. D., Kosslyn, S. M., & Dror, I. E. (1998). Aging and scanning of imagined and perceived visual images. Experimental Aging Research, 24, 181–194.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Brown, H. D., & Dror, I. E. (1999). Aging and the scope of visual attention. Gerontology, 45, 102–109.

Expertise, visual-spatial abilities, and training

KEY CITATIONS

  • Dror, I., Kosslyn, S. M., & Waag, W. (1993). Visual-spatial abilities of pilots. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 763–773.

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  • Emmorey, K., Kosslyn, S. M., & Bellugi, U. (1993). Visual imagery and visual-spatial language: Enhanced imagery abilities in deaf and hearing ASL signers. Cognition, 46, 139–181.

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  • Emmorey, K., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1996). Enhanced image generation in deaf signers: A right hemisphere effect. Brain and Cognition, 32, 28–44.

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  • Wright, R., Thompson, W. L., Ganis, G., Newcombe, N. S., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2008). Training generalized spatial skills. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 763–771.

Rapid cognitive assessment

KEY CITATIONS

  • Shephard, J. M., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2005). The MiniCog Rapid Assessment Battery: Developing a "blood pressure cuff for the mind." Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 76(6, Suppl.), B192–B197.

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  • Shephard, J. M., Kho, S., Chen, J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2006). MiniCog: A method for administering psychological tests and experiments on a handheld personal digital assistant. Behavior Research Methods, 38, 648–655.

Teaching and learning

KEY CITATIONS

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2017). The science of learning. In S. M. Kosslyn & B. Nelson (Eds.), Building the Intentional University (pp. 149–164). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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  • Fost, J., Levitt, R., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2017). Fully active learning. In S. M. Kosslyn & B. Nelson (Eds.), Building the Intentional University (pp. 165–178). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2020). Active Learning Online: Five Principles that Make Online Courses Come Alive. Boston: Alinea Learning.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2024). Many types of hybrid courses are the future of education. In K. Merritt, E. P. Callaghan, & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), The Inspired Hybrid Classroom. Boston: Alinea Learning.

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  • Merritt, K., Callaghan, E. P., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2024). Effective learning objectives in the hybrid classroom. In K. Merritt, E. P. Callaghan, & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), The Inspired Hybrid Classroom. Boston: Alinea Learning.

Education in the age of AI

KEY CITATIONS

  • Aoun, J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2018). Outsmarting AI. Liberal Education, 104(4).

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2023). Active Learning with AI: A Practical Guide. Boston: Alinea Learning.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M. (2024). Learning to Flourish in the Age of AI. London: Routledge.

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  • Kosslyn, S. M., Callaghan, E. P., & Green, D. (2025). "Dynamic Personalized Learning": A new way to use AI to enhance teaching and

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